Damietta, a city with a rich and varied past, has witnessed numerous transformations over millennia. Situated on the Nile Delta and extending to the Mediterranean Sea, its strategic location has made it a focal point of historical events from ancient to modern times. Throughout its history, Damietta has been influenced by various cultures and empires, each leaving a distinct mark on its development and significance. From its origins in the Pharaohnic era to the Crusader invasions, its economic importance during the Roman and Byzantine periods, and its strategic value in later conflicts, Damietta has continually adapted and evolved. This brief overview explores the key historical phases of Damietta, highlighting its evolution from a prominent ancient port to a pivotal city in medieval and modern history.
The Pharaohnic Age
Information concerning Damietta during the Pharaohnic era remains somewhat enigmatic and ambiguous. Some historians and archaeologists propose that Upper Egypt was divided into 20 provinces, the seventeenth of which was Damietta, known as ‘Tamhet’. This province included the land between the ‘Tamatian’ or ‘Fatentian’ branch (Damietta Branch) and the ‘Septenian’ branch (Sammanud Branch). This district extended to the Mediterranean coast, with its capital being ‘Bi Amon’, known as ‘Zeus Julus’ in Greek. This city was consistently associated with Southern Thebes as Northern Thebes (the city of the north), which is reflected in the meaning of ‘Tamhet’.
The Greco-Roman Age
Since Alexander the Great’s conquest of Egypt in 332 B.C., Damietta, like other Egyptian cities, was under Greek rule, followed by the Ptolemies, until the Roman occupation in 30 B.C. During the three centuries of Greek dominance, commercial relations between Egyptians and Greeks flourished, particularly due to the widespread use of the Greek language in Egypt. The Greeks named towns using Greek names derived or translated from the Egyptian language, such as ‘Tamyatis’ (Damietta). The proximity of these ports to the Greek mainland influenced this. Many Greek merchants, scientists, writers, and tourists moved to Damietta to study Egyptian history, geography, monuments, and customs. Moreover, these coastal cities, including Damietta, served as secure ports for Greek ships and trade.
The Roman-Byzantine Age
To the Romans, Damietta was a crucial source of cereals, flax, papyrus, and other crops. However, increasing taxes and burdens led to frequent revolts against Roman rule. Notably, Emperor Domitian, who ruled from 81 A.D., visited Damietta and became one of its patrons.
From 509 A.D., Damietta became a military target for Byzantine warships. The Persian army invaded and plundered it between 616 and 622 A.D., committing numerous massacres.
Thus, it was in the Roman state’s interest to fortify Egyptian coastal cities, making them suitable for anchoring and trade. Consequently, Damietta became one of the most significant centres during the Roman era, receiving merchantmen and warships.
The Islamic Conquest
In the mid-seventh century, Egypt became an Arab province, and Damietta, like most Egyptian cities, surrendered peacefully to the Arab army.
When Amr Ibn Al-‘As realised that most of the country had submitted to the Arabs after his capture of Alexandria, he ordered the army to move along the coast to Damietta, noted for its strong fortifications. Governor John handed over the city, and by 642, the Arabs had secured all the Nile outlets to the Mediterranean Sea. Damietta then became increasingly integrated into the Arab world, with Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula settling in the city and mosques being built. The Arabs also Arabicised many town names, changing Tamyats to Dumyat.
Gradually, Damietta took on an Arabic character, with its people converting to Islam and learning Arabic. Inter-marriages between Arabs and Copts led to a blending of various elements, social systems, customs, sciences, and arts.
In the eighth century, Damietta faced two destructive Roman raids, the first in 709 and the second in 738, as the Byzantine state attempted to regain lost territories. However, these raids were unsuccessful.
In the ninth century, following the death of Caliph Al-Rashid in 808 A.D., a conflict arose between his sons, Al-Amin and Al-Ma’mun. Al-Amin received support from craftsmen, leading Al-Ma’mun to march an army to confront them, though the army was defeated. Amidst this chaos, Damietta’s fine textiles, including the Kiswa and garments for kings and governors, were prominent in eastern markets.
During these turbulent times, the Romans attacked Damietta three times. A naval assault in 852 A.D. saw warships land in Damietta, causing significant destruction and casualties before being repelled by the city’s defenders. Consequently, Caliph Al-Mutawakkil ordered the construction of a fort in Damietta to defend against repeated Roman attacks throughout the century.
In the tenth century, after years of disturbance, the Romans seized the opportunity in 919 to attack Damietta with 200 warships, ravaging the coast for a month. Another attack occurred after the death of Kafur Al-Ikhshid, the ruler of Egypt, in 968, with twenty-odd men-of-war killing many and taking 150 hostages. It seemed Damietta was often a scapegoat for corrupt governments and rulers.
The Fatimids Age
At the beginning of the Fatimid era, Egypt enjoyed a period of relative stability that fostered industry and commerce, particularly in historically significant cities like Damietta, renowned for its textiles and clothing. Elite cupboards, assistants, and retinues were filled with luxurious textiles produced in Damietta. Moreover, Damietta’s mosques were frequented by students of religious sciences, jurists, poets, and men of letters.
The Crusader Invasions
In 1169 A.D., Emperor Emanuel of Constantinople dispatched a fleet of approximately 1,200 warships equipped with catapults and mangonels. They arrived at Damietta in 1170 and laid siege for fifty-three days. Saladin responded by sending an army via the Nile, providing weapons, ammunition, and funds. When the Europeans learned of Saladin’s assistance from Nour Al-Din of Damascus, they became fearful and retreated, especially after some of their ships sank and diseases spread among them.
On 30 May 1218, the heralds of the Second Crusade arrived at Damietta with German, Dutch, English, French, and Italian soldiers, totalling seventy thousand knights and forty thousand infantry, landing on what was then Damietta Island.
They laid siege to the city from all sides, blocking food supplies. To protect themselves, they surrounded their camps with trenches, walls, and barricades while the Damietta defenders fought on for sixteen months and twenty-two days before the Europeans captured and plundered the city in November 1219. They converted the large mosque (Amr Ibn Al-‘As) into a church and fortified the city.
During summer, with the Nile in flood, the plains became moors, leaving the Crusaders on a peninsula surrounded by water and enemies. On 26 August 1221, they attempted a desperate retreat, but Al-Kamel’s forces encircled them, cutting off their escape. The Europeans sought a settlement, agreeing to leave Damietta and Egypt in exchange for an exchange of prisoners.
As usual, the Crusaders aimed to capture Egypt as a precursor to seizing Jerusalem and Syria. In August 1248, a large fleet of about 1,800 warships carrying 80,000 soldiers, commanded by Louis IX, known as Saint Louis, King of France, arrived at Damietta’s coast on 4 June 1249. Fierce battles ensued on the beach to prevent their landing. Fakhr Al-Din and his soldiers eventually withdrew from Damietta as the situation deteriorated, followed by the people of Kinana, who set fire to the markets. However, the bridge connecting the Nile’s banks was not destroyed, allowing the Crusaders to seize the city.
Resistance continued, with European relief ships arriving with supplies, but Egyptian ships intervened, trapping the occupying forces in their camp, where hunger and disease spread. King Louis IX realised the untenability of the situation and ordered a withdrawal on 15 April 1250.
The King and his barons were captured and taken to Al-Mansoura, where they were imprisoned at Judge Ibn Loqman’s house until they redeemed themselves with 400,000 golden guineas, agreeing to leave Damietta, which occurred on 8 May 1250, after eleven months and five days—an event commemorated as Damietta’s national day.
The French Campaign
When Napoleon seized Alexandria and Cairo in 1798, he appointed General Vial as the commander of Damietta, which he occupied along with Ezbet Al-Borg. In early September 1798, a revolt against the French erupted in Damietta. Vial requested assistance while Hassan Tobar, leader of Al-Manzala, moved with his fleet and forces towards the coast of Ghit Al-Nasara (fields of the Christians). Villagers joined him, and the group attacked General Vial’s forces, killing the city’s frontier guards. The fight continued through the night of 16 September. However, Vial reorganised his forces and counterattacked, forcing the rebels to withdraw.
After the French occupation of Al-Manzala, they captured Al-Matarya, and Hassan Tobar had to flee to Gaza with his family. He later returned under the condition of avoiding current events. Consequently, the French succeeded in occupying Damietta province and Al-Manzala district, fortifying Damietta and constructing castles.
When Abdullah Mino took command of the French in Egypt, he ordered troops to depart from the provinces and assemble in Cairo for a complete withdrawal to France. Damietta was evacuated of French soldiers, although 200 soldiers remained at Ezbet Al-Borg until the final evacuation of the French campaign on 18 September 1801, after three years and three months of occupation.
Mohamed Ali’s Dynasty
When Mohamed Ali became the ruler of Egypt in 1805, Damietta was Egypt’s most flourishing port, even more significant than Alexandria. Its population of about 30,000 was substantial compared to Egypt’s total population of less than three million and Alexandria’s 6,000.
Mohamed Ali himself visited Damietta Military School in 1818 and stayed for several days. In 1834, a plague spread throughout Egypt, including Damietta.
Early 20th Century
At the turn of the twentieth century, British occupation continued in Egypt, but global development proceeded, and Egypt, including Damietta, advanced despite the occupation.
Following World War I, Damietta faced a decline in commerce, halted navigation, and reduced European imports of furniture and shoes. Nevertheless, local handicraft factories competed vigorously. Politically, Damietta contributed to the 1919 revolution and resistance against British forces.
Residents of Damietta, known for their reformist zeal and industrious efforts, were likened to beehives, producing furniture, shoes, dairy products, textiles, hulled rice, fishing, and salting fish.
July Revolution
The 23 July Revolution of 1952 marked the beginning of a new era for Damietta, characterised by significant advances in production, services, and public utilities. This period signalled the start of Damietta’s renaissance.
On 8 May 1960, President Gamal Abdel Nasser visited Damietta, inaugurating the Al-Nasr factory for spinning and textiles and promising to reconsider the redevelopment of Damietta port.
The Setback
Damietta endured the effects of the 1967 setback, with the summer resort of Ras Al-Bar becoming a refuge for those displaced from Port Said and others throughout the governorate. During this period of displacement, a spirit of solidarity and cooperation emerged between Damietta’s residents and those from Port Said and other canal cities.
October War
When President Anwar Sadat declared zero hour and Egyptian forces crossed the Suez Canal to liberate Sinai on 6 October 1973, Damietta served as a protective shield for the front lines, earning President Sadat’s appreciation. He awarded the Order of Merit of the First Rank to Damietta’s police flag for its exemplary role in the battle.
The evolution of Damietta reflects its enduring significance and adaptability throughout history. As a strategic port and cultural crossroads, the city has navigated periods of conquest, conflict, and renewal. Each era has contributed to its unique character, from ancient Pharaohnic times through successive empires and into the modern era. The resilience and strategic importance of Damietta underscore its central role in Egypt’s history, embodying a rich tapestry of historical influences that have shaped its identity over centuries. As it continues to grow and adapt, Damietta remains a testament to the enduring legacy of its diverse past and its crucial role in Egypt’s historical narrative.